ČESKÝ ČASOPIS HISTORICKÝ / THE CZECH HISTORICAL REVIEW
ročník 115
č. 4/2017
s. 953–1242

ČTVRTNÍK Mikuláš
Právo veřejnosti na dokumenty v USA a Francii.
Soudobé historické prameny a proměna role
veřejných archivů ve 21. století … S. 959
(The Right of Public Access to Records in the USA and France.
Contemporary Historical Resources and the Transformation
of the Role of Public Archives in the 21st Century)

The following study aims to define, describe and to demonstrate in selected real examples the tendency, which it has detected in the relation of advanced, democratic societies, towards the documents and resources of primarily oficial provenance, namely by the supreme representatives of public power. The tendency, according to the proposed thesis of this study, relies on the gradual implementation and enforcement of society’s claim to the ownership and access to writings, records, documents and historical resources of oficial provenance, in particular those by the supreme represenatives of the state. this contribution will also document the existence of this trend by outlining some legislative changes which have occurred since the middle of the 20th century up to the present day. Using this trend, this study aims to demonstrate, among others, the above and in what means some basic democratic mechanisms can implement themselves and further develop in relation to documents, textual and nontextual resources, namely on the part of historians, archivists and other persons participating in the administration of the documents of oficial provenance and future potential resources and of the whole of society.
This contribution intends to outline the important and ever progressive transformation of public archives in recent decades as one of the crucial consequences thereof.
Key words: historical resources – Federal documents – archives – freedom of information – history of the USA – history of France – history of the 20th century – archival destruction – public records

RESUME
Contemporary history, as known, has struggled with the phenomenon of an enormous overproduction of records and consequent historical resources, especially since the second half of the 20th century, with which it has to cope in one way or another. It may then seem a paradoxical phenomenon, and not as much evident, that apart from this enormous quantity of documentary and primary resource richess, there appear situations at the present time, and even in the most advanced democracies, when the loss and non-retention of even the most important records and historical resources of official provenance occur. One of the key moments which contributes to this state of affairs enabling a massive loss of records and historical resources from the production of the supreme state representatives, is dissimilar, even a contradictory perception of their fundamental character and nature, namely whether they are to be considered to be public or private documents.
The following study aims to define, describe and to demonstrate in selected real examples the tendency, which it has detected in the relation of advanced, democratic societies towards the documents and resources of primarily oficial provenance, namely those by the supreme representatives of public power. The underlying thesis of the study submitted here is that since the middle of the 20th century in some countries with long and advanced democratic traditions, the trend based on a gradual and ever stronger implementation and enforcement of society’s claim to the ownership and access to writings, records, documents and historical resources of official provenance, in particular those by the supreme represenatives of the state, has prevailed. This contribution documents the transformation of this trend in a significant manner using the analysis of substantive legislative changes from the given period. this contribution draws our attention to three exemplary cases: 1. Records of the Federal Bureaux of the United States of America and their senior officials; 2. US Presidential Records; 3. Records of the French Presidents and Ministers.
Based on the comprehensive analysis of these cases, this study firstly documents the existence of the stated tendency of a progressively strengthening claim of society to the ownership of the documents of their representatives, on the other hand it demonstrates using this trend that the care for the documents and historical resources and their management, including the major role of public archives in themselves, emobodies something very important. this might just escape us if we limited the perspective merely to the preservation of historically valuable textual and non-textual materials. Proper preservation, deposition in archives, processing and opening to the public of the documents of political representatives, supreme organs of the country and public servants do not merely carry the historical level of the importance of preserving materials on the basis of which historians will one day write up and „create“ history, but embody in themselves the principal aspect of a democratic order and the practical exercise of democracy. The possibility of access to records as outputs of the exercise of a public office, be it that of President, Prime Minister, Minister or an ordinary public servant carries with it the substantive moment of a possibility to scrutinise and monitor their activities. this possibility to scrutinize is similarly important in science as in public administration and represents one of the substantive mechanisms of democratic control. After all, even public archives, which deposit and administer documentation ensuing from the exercise of power by political representatives, as well as the institutions of public administration, are part of this process. Indeed, the archives do not fulfil merely and only the role of keeper, custodian and grower of historically valuable documentation, they also function as a place of exercise of public administration, including the function of public scrutiny. Alongside the above mentioned tendency, the archives have undertaken the function of one of the guarantors of the possibility of scrutiny on the part of society towards the representatives of political power and public administration, with particular attention to its highest officials since the middle of the 20th century.
This tendency of an ever growing demand of the society, ever more aware of its claim to access, scrutiny and finally even of its ownership of documentation ensuing/originating from the exercise of public functions and evidenced/documented on the examples and presidential and federal organs in the USA or the presidential and ministerial documents in France, represents one of the important moments in the strengthening and taking roots of a free society and of the democratic order, also an invaluable source of inspiration even for the Czech society and its future development.

BAUCH Martin
Jammer und Not. Karl IV. und die natürlichen
Rahmenbedingungen des 14. Jahrhunderts … S. 983
(Nářek a nouze. Karel IV. a rámcové přírodní podmínky 14. století)

Charles IV was born at a time when the worst ever famine of the last millenium peaked. His life and reign were dominated by an unprecedented burden imposed upon European society by a worsened climate, crop failures, frequent floods, desolation of the countryside and the Black Death. At the same time, the Czech Lands experienced a remarkable cultural blossoming, primarily under the baton of the sovereign and his court, alongside a phase of territorial acquisitions and a stabilisation of his political power. The author searches for an answer to this seemingly contradictory nature of those times and outlines what the contemporaries had to say about it. Indeed, Charles IV might seemingly have led his life isolated from the crisis-ridden day-to-day normality of his times. Yet, he was repeatedly a direct witness to extreme natural events, which shook the society of his time to the core and posed unusual and extraordinary challenges to it. This study merges the findings from the fields of political history, cultural history and the history of piety with the results of naturalscientific and climatic research. It, thus, aims to give us an insight into the somewhat contradictory personality of Charles IV.
Key words: Charles IV – the Czech Lands – Europe – climatic crisis in the 14th century – natural conditions versus cultural development – medieval interpretation of catastrophies

RESUME
Karl IV. wurde auf dem Höhepunkt der schlimmsten Hungersnot des letzten Jahrtausends geboren; sein Leben und seine Regierungsjahre waren geprägt von beispiellosen Belastungen der europäischen Gesellschaften durch Klimaverschlechterung, Missernten, Überschwemmungen, Wüstungsprozesse und natürlich durch den Schwarzen Tod. Zugleich entwickelte sich im karolinischen Böhmen eine beeindruckende kulturelle Blütezeit und eine Phase politischer Machtentfaltung, für die wesentlich der Herrscher und sein Hof ursächlich waren. Diese Gleichzeitigkeit scheinbar widersprüchlicher Befunde auszuleuchten und ihre Wahrnehmung durch die Zeitgenossen zu rekonstruieren war Anliegen dieses Beitrags.
Obwohl Karl IV. nicht nur auf den ersten Blick ein Leben führte, dass von den krisenhaften Alltagsbedingungen der Zeitgenossen abgekoppelt war, wurde er doch immer wieder Augen- oder zumindest Zeitzeuge von Extremereignissen natürlichen Ursprungs, die die mittelalterlichen Gesellschaften erschütterten und mit gänzlich ungewohnten Herausforderungen konfrontierten. Der Beitrag hat Befunde aus Politik-, Kultur- und Architekturgeschichte mit solchen der Naturwissenschaften und historischen Klimatologie kombiniert, um sich der historischen Figur des Luxemburgers einmal mehr in ihrer Widersprüchlichkeit zu nähern.
Die Geburt Karls im Jahr 1316 fällt mitten in eine ausgeprägte Periode meteorologischer Ungunst in der europäischen Geschichte, der sogenannten ‚Dantean Anomaly‘. Lange bekannt ist die größte Hungersnot des vergangenen Jahrtausends, die ‚Great Famine‘ (1315–1321), die für Nordwesteuropa, v.a. die Britischen Inseln, ausführlich erforscht wurde. Für Mitteleuropa liegen noch immer wenige Forschungen zu diesem Ereignis vor, wobei die Quellenbelege eine recht eindeutige Sprache sprechen: Nicht nur Petr Žitavskýs (Peter von Zittau) Chronicon Aulae Regiae berichtet von andauerndem Regen im Sommer 1316 und anschließenden Überschwemmungen, sondern in den Folgejahren auch Hungersnot, Massensterben und vereinzelten Fälle von Kannibalismus. Die böhmischen Belege lassen sich nahtlos in die Situation des besser erforschten Ungarn einordnen, und auch im deutschsprachigen Reichsteil gibt es zahlreiche Hinweise auf die verzweifelte Situation der zweiten Hälfte der 1310er Jahre. Außerdem liegen aus Böhmen die ersten schriftlichen Belege für eine zweite Geißel der ‚Dantean Anomaly‘ vor, eine Tierseuche vor allem unter Rindern, die sich in wenigen Jahren über Europa ausbreitete. In England konnten ihre Auswirkungen im Detail rekonstruiert werden: Der Ausfall von 80 % der Rinderbestände nach Jahren der Missernten und Mangelernährung bedeutete nicht nur den Verlust von Milchprodukten und Fleisch für breite Bevölkerungskreise als Alternative zum fehlenden Korn. Die agrarischen Ökonomien entbehrten zudem eines Großteils ihrer Zugtiere zur Bestellung der Felder und zum Transport von Lebensmitteln. Die viel diskutierten, krisenhaften Zustände in Böhmen lagen also sicher nicht nur am Eigensinn der einheimischen Magnaten und den Etablierungsschwierigkeiten Johanns von Luxemburg. Die exzessiven Niederschläge, die die Schriftquellen berichten, waren real, wie dendrochronologische Untersuchungen von Bohrkernen aus den Holzkonstruktionen von Burg Karlstein und des Altstädter Brückenturms der Karlsbrücke belegen. Das Jahr 1316 kann nach deren Analyse als das feuchteste Jahr Böhmens im 14. Jahrhundert gelten.
Die Erfahrung der Jahre 1331–1333 in Oberitalien war für Karl IV. eine Lehrzeit nicht nur in politisch-militärischer Hinsicht. Er erlebte in Italien neben dem raschen Aufstieg und Niedergang der luxemburgischen Signorie und der Unbeherrschbarkeit der oberitalienischen Stadtstaaten auch eine Phase intensivierter meteorologischer Belastungen mit einer Reihe von Hochwässern, Teuerungen und Hungersnöten. Der böhmische Prinz wurde in seiner Rolle als Signore Parmas auch mit dem hochentwickelten Getreidemanagement einer italienischen Kommune konfrontiert. Den in diesem Rahmen getroffenen Präventionsmaßnahmen zur Nahrungsmittelsicherheit gelang es häufig, Mangelperioden zumindest für die Bürger der Stadt auszugleichen. Allerdings ist nicht erkennbar, dass dieser Aspekt der italienischen Verhältnisse gleichermaßen prägend auf den primogenitus des böhmischen Königs gewirkt hätte wie die politisch-militärischen Lehren seines Italienaufenthalts.
Für die Heuschreckeninvasion nach Mitteleuropa, die 1338 von Ungarn kommend die Donau entlang zog, wurde der junge Luxemburger ganz zufällig zum Augenzeugen. Der entsprechende Bericht in der Vita Caroli Quarti ist eine der ausführlichsten Beschreibungen des in Mitteleuropa seltenen Ereignisses, das Karl einerseits distanziert-nüchtern referierte, andererseits doch in den Termini der biblischen Vorlagen erfasste. Dabei ließen sich die Heuschrecken keineswegs nur in Schriftquellen nachweisen: Schlammbohrkerne aus Seen in der Eifel weisen genau für 1338 eine einmalig hohe Dichte von Insektenresten aus. Darüber hinaus liegt aus Niederösterreich das Siegel eines Adligen von 1347 vor, das – einmalig im ganzen Spätmittelalter – im Wappenschild eine Heuschrecke zeigt. Der Siegelführer Niklas Fronauer und seine Familie lebten genau in der von den Heuschrecken 1338 betroffenen Region; eine Interpretation des Siegelbildes als kultureller Reflex dieser Erfahrung erscheint daher wahrscheinlich.
Ein zentrales Monument der karolinischen Baupolitik in Prag, die Karlsbrücke, ist in ihrer Entstehung und Gestaltung ebenfalls nicht erklärbar ohne Rückbezug auf die enormen Hochwässer, die Mitteleuropa in den Jahren 1342/43 heimsuchten. Das bekannteste Ereignis war dabei die sogenannte Magdalenenflut vom Juli 1342, die als stärkstes Hochwasser des vergangenen Jahrtausends in diesen Regionen gilt. De facto handelt es sich um eine Reihe von Flutereignissen, deren erste Welle im Februar 1342 den Vorgänger der Karlsbrücke, die Judithbrücke, zu großen Teilen zerstörte. Die in den 1330er gebaute Elbbrücke in Roudnice nad Labem hatte das Hochwasser hingegen überstanden, und es ist nicht unwahrscheinlich, dass der als Meister Otto bekannte Baumeister der Karlsbrücke dort, angeleitet von französischen Experten, seine ersten Erfahrungen machte.
Das gesamteuropäische Ereignis der Magdalenenflut hatte aber noch tiefgreifendere Konsequenzen, wie Ergebnisse aus der naturwissenschaftlich geprägten, historischen Erosionsforschung nahelegen: Untersuchungen an verschiedensten Stellen Mitteleuropas haben gezeigt, dass ein einzelnes Extremregenereignis in der Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts für 40 % der Gesamterosion des vergangenen Jahrtausends verantwortlich war. Daraus wurde eine durchschnittliche Erosion von 10 cm fruchtbaren Ackerbodens durch einen einzigen Niederschlag von monströsen Dimensionen errechnet. Die Konsequenzen für die Wüstungsprozesse der Zeit liegen auf der Hand. Auch die vielfach konstatierte Agrarkrise des Spätmittelalters kann unter diesen Umständen nicht mehr alleine ökonomisch-demographisch erklärt werden.
Dabei ist zu betonen, dass die 1340er Jahre schon vor Ausbruch des Schwarzen Todes in Europa eine Prüfung darstellten. Seit 1345 war überdurchschnittliche Feuchte und Kälte zu verzeichnen, die bereits zu Teuerungen und Hungersnöten in ganz Europa führten und so dem Pestbakterium eine geschwächte Bevölkerung auslieferten. Hinweise auf meteorologische Unregelmäßigkeiten z.B. im Pestgutachten der Pariser Universität können nicht nur mit Verweis auf die Humeralpathologie als medizinischem Erklärungsansatz der Zeit abgetan werden. Die erste Pestwelle ab 1347 bleibt natürlich das zentrale Ereignis unter den natürlichen Einflussfaktoren auf die europäischen Gesellschaften des 14. Jahrhunderts, wie die neueren Forschungen von Bruce M.S. Campbell bestätigt haben. Eine wichtige Rolle spielten dabei die sich verändernden Niederschlagsverhältnisse in Zentralasien. Doch als sich der Pesterreger nach jahrzehntelanger, im Detail ungeklärter Wanderung nach Westen in Europa rasend schnell verbreitete – was einen Infektionsweg von Mensch zu Mensch notwendig erscheinen lässt – blieb Böhmen aller Wahrscheinlichkeit nach ausgespart.
Für die besonders kalten Winter der 1350er Jahre lieferte Francesco Petrarcas Briefwechsel erstaunliche Belege. Insbesondere verbanden sowohl er wie auch andere Zeitgenossen diese für Italien ungewöhnlich kalten Jahreszeiten ausdrücklich mit der Ankunft Karls IV. 1354/55 zur Kaiserkrönung in Rom. Und auch in den Folgejahren häuften sich nördlich der Alpen die Extremereignisse. Dass einer der ersten Belege für die Anwesenheit Jan Milíčs z Kroměříže (Johann Militsch von Kremsier) im Umfeld der kaiserlichen Kanzlei in das Jahr 1357 fiel, an dem Chronisten am Mittelrhein über das Erscheinen des Antichrists spekulierten, wirft die Frage auf, ob die chiliastischen Ideen Milíčs auch hiervon beeinflusst wurden.
Die frühen 1360er Jahre wiesen neue Erschütterungen für die mitgenommenen Gesellschaften Mitteleuropas auf: Zum einen die zweite Pestwelle, die diesmal auch Böhmen erreichte; zum anderen eine Periode intensiver, überregionaler Trockenheit, die zu Teuerung und Hungersnot auch in Böhmen beitrug. Dendrochronologische Befunde weisen den Sommer 1361 als trockenste Jahreszeit in Böhmen im ganzen 14. Jahrhundert nach. Vor diesem Hintergrund kann die Überlieferung zur Prager ‚Hungermauer‘ neu kontextualisiert werden – wenn auch die Vervollständigung des Mauerrings auf der Kleinseite nach wie vor nicht überzeugend als soziale Maßnahme Karls IV. zur Linderung der Not seiner Untertanen verstanden werden kann.
Auf einem kälteren und feuchteren Niveau als noch zu Beginn des Jahrhunderts scheinen sich die meteorologischen Verhältnisse ab den 1360er Jahren stabilisiert zu haben; ein neues klimatisches Regime hatte sich etabliert, das möglicherweise als erste Phase der sogenannten Kleinen Eiszeit angesprochen werden kann. Letztlich war es der Rückgang der Frequenz von Extremereignisse, der den betroffenen Gesellschaften eine Atempause verschaffte. Zeitgenossen äußerten im 14. Jahrhundert immer wieder die Ansicht, dass die Natur außer Kontrolle geriet (Toute chose se desnature, Eustache Deschamps); die deutsche Sibyllenweissagung sprach von Extremwetter, Erdbeben, Hungersnot und Seuchen, die das Zeitalter von ‚König Karl‘ negativ charakterisierten. Sicher spielten in beiden Fällen ältere, eschatologische Topoi eine Rolle. Doch zugleich waren diese literarischen Elemente Ausformungen realer Erfahrungen der Zeitgenossen. Als Karl IV. 1378 starb, war er in seiner Lebenszeit wie seine Zeitgenossen ein Augenzeuge dieser grant mutacion de temps (Deschamps) geworden. Anders als die Mehrzahl der Menschen des 14. Jahrhunderts war er aber mit den bedrohlichen Konsequenzen dieser Übergangsepoche kaum konfrontiert. Die relative Gleichgültigkeit des römisch-deutschen und böhmischen Herrschers gegenüber den Opfern von Seuchen und Naturkatastrophen ist im europäischen Vergleich eher der Normallfall als die Ausnahme.
Die Kontextualisierung einer historischen Figur wie Karl IV. in Bezug auf die natürlichen Rahmenbedingungen seiner Herrschaft führen zu keiner fundamentalen Neubewertung seiner Regierung. Aber sie werfen Licht auf Aspekte und Strukturen der Epoche, die im Fokus herkömmlicher Politik- und Kulturgeschichte nicht ins Auge gefasst wurden: Pest, Geißler und Judenmorde (Graus) bleiben zwar prägend für das 14. Jahrhundert, allen Versuchen zum Trotz, die Krise des Spätmittelalters primär im historischen Diskurs des 20. Jahrhunderts zu verankern. Die Weitung des historischen Blicks auf extremes Wetter, Hochwasser und Erosion, Viehseuchen und Teuerung, untermauert aber zusätzlich den krisenhaften Charakter der Zeit, nicht zuletzt durch den Einbezug naturwissenschaftlicher Befunde. Deutlich wird allerdings auch, dass sich die Verletzlichkeit bezüglich dieser Extremereignisse in spätmittelalterlichen Gesellschaften sehr ungleich verteilte. Der Hof Karls IV. und seine Exponenten, der Herrscher nicht zuletzt, waren zwar Zeitzeugen, aber sicher nicht die Hauptbetroffenen der widrigen natürlichen Rahmenbedingungen. Die Gleichzeitigkeit von (kulturell-politischer) Blüte und (physischem) Frost präsentiert sich geradezu als ein Merkmal der karolinischen Epoche.

KVĚTINA Jan
Politický dialog Łukasze Opalińského jako odraz
ambivalentní tradice polského republikanismu … S. 1017
(The Political Dialogue of Łukasz Opaliński as a Reflection
of Ambivalent Tradition of Polish Republicanism)

By the analysis of the particular political dialogue Rozmowa Plebana z Ziemianinem written by Łukasz Opaliński in the 17th century, this study aims to interpret the early modern concept of Polish identity within the framework of ancient tradition of a good commonwealth. Moreover, paying particular attention to the values of liberty, equality and legality, one is allowed to assume that the aforementioned Polish tradition resembles the attributes of European republicanism that were typical of distinctive Western European political thought of that time. Applying the methods of discourse analysis, it is possible to identify important and specific changes concerning Opaliński´s concept of a dialogue in comparison with an older Polish tradition of the same genre. Hence, one can claim that Opaliński´s fictional figures does not represent a typical clash between desirable and undesirable political ideas, but are supposed to reflect symbolic internal and indispensable ambivalence within the concept of Polish identity regarding specific interpretation of liberty, political equality and common good.
Key words: republicanism – discourse analysis – Polish identity – Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – noble democracy – history of ideas – Łukasz Opaliński – political dialogue – liberty – equality.

RESUME
This paper is focused on the republican discourse of Polish early modern political thought and its related concept of identity applying the discursive analytical methods to the research of the political dialogue written by Łukasz Opaliński. Assuming the presence as well as importance of the so called aristocratic myth within the Polish political thought of that time (i.e. the reflection of noble identity since the 16th century that was later ideologically interpreted since the Enlightenment), the study struggles to identify the patterns of republican tradition within this heritage. Moreover, distinctive features of the fictional figures and their discourses in the aforementioned political dialogue entitles us to state that the Polish republican concept resembled similar attributes in Western European context, where alternative interpretation of political values – distinct from mainstream liberal tradition – was identified by Q. Skinner, J. G. A. Pocock or P. Pettit.
Taking Opaliński’s dialogic work as the main symbolic object for the discourse analysis, it is necessary to consider this genre as a part of early modern politics itself that reflected not only ideal values and principles, but also particular and topical questions commenting current quandaries of political system. In this regard, the study highlights Opaliński’s crucial turn concerning new baroque concept of political dialogue whose structure became diferent from the earlier Socratic tradition that was popular in Renaissance. The comparison of Opaliński’s dialogic concept wih older dialogues written by S. Orzechowski proves fundamental changes regarding
more ambivalent construction of main dialogical figures that represented author’s complicated and dilemmatic understanding of Polish society. Hence, the study does not accept the older and classical interpretations of Opaliński’s political works based on the concept of S. Dobrzycki. On the contrary, it struggles to claim that Opaliński’s most famous dialogue does not represent typical tension between backward traditionalism and desirable reformism, but highlights the importance of both political positions within current Polish political structure.
As it has been already mentioned, those ambivalent traits of Opaliński’s fictional figures as the symbolic representantative patterns of the main political attitudes reflect the crucial features of European republicanism, i.e. the theoretical construction whose validity has been proved for particular and distinct countries in Western Europe. However, the discursive analysis of Polish political dialogues confirms that specific concept of liberty as non-dominance, civic equality and omnipotence of constitutional and legal state represented influential and indispensable parts of Polish political thought. The dependence of Polish aristocratic identity on political bonds thus contributed to the construction of myth of Polish uniqueness as local nobles identified themselves as the freest and most equal community in the world.
Regarding the aforementioned presence of republican thought, one can claim that political tension between pleban (priest) and ziemianin (yeoman), two main figures of Opaliński’s dialogue, represents mutual interdependence between private and public concept of liberty where the former level of this value is sustainable only on the condition of active political participation of noble citizens. Moreover, even principles of equality promoted again by both figures of the dialogue can be treated as a symptom of republican thought, because this value is described in strict political terms demarcating a huge gab between legally equal citizens and other social classes. As the last important Polish distinctive identitary trait one can highlight indispensable connection between ancient heritage of common good and sovereignty of law that is supposed to be superior to all political institutions. The clash over ideal ancient constitution between zemianin as an adherent to Roman plebeians and Athens and pleban as a supporter of Roman patricians and Venice thus can be seen as an expression of current political conflict over individual and communal sphere of common good as well as over ideal Polish constitution where Opalinski calls for a harmonious monarchia mixta being able to combine the royal majesty with noble democracy.

PERUTKA Lukáš
Jižní Amerika a její hospodářství na počátku 20. století
pohledem Zdeňka Fafla … S. 1046
(Zdeněk Fafl’s reflection of South America, and its economy
in the beginning of the 20th century)

This study focuses on the figure of Zdenek Fafl (1881–1961), deputy of the Prague Chamber of Commerce who visited in 1910 and 1911 states in South America. The topic is addressed from a wide perspective of relations between Austria-Hungary and the respective countries. It is based on the material from the personal collection of Zdenek Fafl stored in the archive of the National Technical Museum in Prague as well as contemporary and present scientific literature. The main goal of this contribution is to introduce the personality of Zdenek Fafl and analyse his writings that offer us invaluable information about the South American countries and their relation with Austria-Hungary in the years prior to the World War I. Without any doubt Fafl’s diary presents the broadest material of its time about countries like Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay or Chile and is also significant for future studies regarding Czechs and South America.
Key words: Zdenek Fafl – Beginning of the 20th century – Czech emigration – Economy of Austria-Hungary – Travelogue of South America – Austria-Hungary relations with Latin America

RESUME
This contribution presents the personality and travelogue of Zdenek Fafl (1881–1961), deputy of the Prague Chamber of Commerce. He was sent by the Austro-Hungarian government to study the opportunities and conditions of trade between the Central European monarchy and countries of the Southern Cone of America like Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile. The administration dispatched him because of its growing interest in the American continent. Although he wrote a fascinating travel diary and went in 1910 and thus was one of the first Czechs there, he and his work have been completely omitted by historiography. One of the principal goals of this article is to change this unflattering fact.
In the end of the 19th century, other European power like Great Britain, Germany, France, and even Italy had already established strong ties with Latin America and the emperor Franz Joseph I did not want to stay behind. When his government received the invitation to a fair in Buenos Aires that would commemorate 100 years of the Argentinian independence, the oficials decided not only to send typical characteristic Austrian merchandise but a delegation as well. It was led by a famous industrialist Arthur Krupp and its members were important economists from the Habsburg empire including Zdenek Fafl. The expedition spent around 20 days in Argentina and Chile; however, Fafl resided in South America half a year.
During his voyage, he observed thoroughly his surroundings and once in a while, he wrote a letter home to the editor of a local newspaper Žďár. When he got back home he collected them and organized into a travelogue. He encompassed exclusively three topics: description of interesting locations, economy, and situation of Austrian and Czech emigrants in South America.
The first subject was intended for the public in Bohemia as Fafl was describing mostly big cities of the continent he visited like Buenos Aires, Santiago de Chile, Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo or São Paulo. His interest was not professional because in these excerpts he just highlighted the life in them and offered their comparison. It is important to notice that local metropolises were the bulk of his travels, therefore he does not offer us characteristics of local nature or landscape. Apart from the municipalities, he mentions just the Jesuit missions in Paraguay and the world famous waterfalls in Iguazu he visited probably as the first Czech ever.
His other two topics were of professional curiosity for him. As he was a member of the Prague Chamber of Commerce he was interested in the local economy and means of production. Apart from the oficial reports he offered his readers back home exciting details about the South American industry they could
not know from their own country. For instance, production and processing of beef or growing of coffee. Austrian and Czech emigrants were another expert concern of his. His government wanted to gather more information about the possibilities and
advantages that it can bring. Therefore Fafl visited several expatriated citizens to question them about their living conditions. It is important to realize that he was one of the first Czechs that conducted this kind of research and thanks to him we have invaluable information how the communities of compatriots were doing in South America.

ČERNUŠÁK Tomáš – MAREK Pavel
Vztahové sítě španělských a papežských diplomatů
u císařského dvora na pozadí krize z let 1608–1609 … S. 1075
(Relationship Networks of Spanish and Papal Diplomats
at the Imperial Court set against a Background of the Hapsburg
Monarchy Crisis /1608–1609/)

The main aims of this study is to analyse the activities of relationship networks with which the Papal Nuncio Antonio Caetani and Spanish envoys Guillén de San Clemente and Baltasar de Zúñiga surrounded themselves at a time of crisis in the Hapsburg Monarchy in the years 1608–1609.
Key words: The Imperial Court – Prague – relationship networks – patronage – papal diplomacy – Spanish envoys

RESUME
Similar to any other structures in the Early Modern Society, diplomats acting within the Imperial Court in Prague during the reign of Rudolph II also utilised relationship networks which not merely helped them to acquire crucial pieces of information but also promoted the interests of superpowers they represented. The Papal Nuncio Antonio Caetani and the Spanish Envoys Guillén de San Clemente and Baltasar de Zúñiga relied especially upon the support of their clients from the ranks of Central European nobility and the Emperor’s courtiers when advancing their political aims. Thus, the principal preconditions for the success of their mission was to maintain and further expand these networks, which they usually had taken over from their predecessors. These networkds were never hermetically sealed and their composition and the degree of their activities varied.
This was evident even in the period of deep internal crisis which the Hapsburg Monarchy underwent in the years 1608–1609. It was caused by a “fraternal” dispute between Emperor Rudolph II and Archduke Matthias, which led not merely to the provisional division of government but also to the increased influence of non-Catholic Estates in the participating countries at the expense of royal power and its weakening. Nuncio Caetani’s relationship network at that time appears to have been relatively small numerically and aimed at persons from around the Privy Council, with easy access to the ruler. Despite the fact that they were persons with huge political influence, their willingness to share and implement the Pope’s interests were rather limited by their loyalty to the Emperor, and primarily by their own personal preferences. These limitations, together with other factors, meant that Antonio Caetani was only successful in partial matters in the period under research, whereas the major ones, such as, for example, the personal reconciliation between Emperor Rudolph and his brother Matthias and to prevent the granting of priviledges to non-Catholics, were beyond his powers. The Spanish clientele network preserved a structure similar to that existing in previous years during the fraternal crisis period. Its specific feature, compared to the papal relatioship network, was the possibility of differentiating a narrow group of the socalled servidores confidentes amongst them. This primarily comprised those persons who were convinced about the necessity of maintaining a unified Hapsburg policy and did not discriminate between the service to the Emperor and to the King of Spain. However, the events of 1608–1609 showed that even their support was not to be taken for granted.
The example of this “fraternal crisis” also documents how closely papal diplomacy at the Imperial Court co-operated with Spanish diplomacy. Although the relations between the Holy See and the Hispanic Monarchy were not always completely devoid of conflicts, their representatives at the Imperial Court acted in unity, at least in matters of religion. This collaboration was naturally reflected in the form of the Spanish and papal relationship networks, in which the very same persons could often be found. It was certainly not by chance that the principal confidants of the Spanish envoy at the Imperial Court at the height of the fraternal dispute in the House of Hapsburg, Zdeněk Vojtěch Popel of Lobkowicz and František of Dietrichstein also simultaneously maintained close relations with the Papal Nuncio Caetani, and the same also applied to other clients, e.g. Hermann Attems or Jan Barvitius.

OBZORY LITERATURY / REVIEW ARTICLES AND REVIEWS

RECENZNÍ ČLÁNEK
s. 1098–1120

Jiří PEŠEK
Varšava, Vídeň a další středoevropská města za první světové války ve světle nové literatury … S. 1098
(Warsaw, Vienna and Other Central European Cities During World War I in the Light of Recent Literary Works)

Based on six publications, covering the fortunes of Warsaw, Vienna, Salzburg and Nurnberg, the author discusses the situation and the role of Central European cities during World War I. What all three monarchies, in particular the Hapsburg Empire and Tzarist Russia, had in common was that they were unprepared for the outbreak of a war of European dimensions; additionally they had not consider their metropolitan and industrial centres to be support structures in the demanding times of war, but saw them as easily exploitable reservoirs of well qualified recruits, money and supplies. The end result was the destructive exhaustion of their cities and in part the devastation of their economic potential. At the same time, the states transferred a whole number of demanding agendas and tasks (especially that of supply), yet they failed to create either material, or legal or financial preconditions for their fulfilment. Only the Wilhelm Empire, out of the three Empires, succeeded (exceptionally – in the case of Warsaw) to establish a productive, not exclusively destructive occupational policy. In Warsaw, Nurnberg and especially in Vienna, extreme war deprivations and the radicalisation of the poor and also of the middle classes forced the ruling (non-socialist) parties to introduce a de facto policy of the welfare state. The situation in the metropolises was one of the determining factors shaping the face of the ensuing post-war republics.
Key words: cities during WW I. – Central Europe – unreadiness of the states for the war – destructive policy against one’s own cities – supply catastrophies – the radicalisation of the population through destitution – welfare state

RECENZE
S. 1121–1165

Brendan SIMMS
Britain’s Europe. A thousand years of conflict and cooperation
(Monika Brusenbauch Meislová) … S. 1121

Martin NODL
Das Kuttenberger Dekret von 1409. Von der Eintracht zum Konflikt der Prager Universitätsnationen
(Thomas Krzenck) … S. 1125

Petr VOREL
The War of the Princes. The Bohemian Lands
and the Holy Roman Empire 1546–1555
(Jaroslav Pánek) … S. 1129

Matthew McLEAN – Sara BARKER (edd.)
International Exchange in the Early Modern Book World
(Olga Fejtová) … S. 1136

Alfred KOHLER
Neue Welterfahrungen. Eine Geschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts
(Jaroslav Pánek) … S. 1141

Adolf Ludvík KREJČÍK
Paměti
(Jaroslav Pánek) … S. 1144

Bedrich LOEWENSTEIN – Milan HLAVAČKA – František ŠÍSTEK a kol.
Násilí: Jiná moderna
(Miloslav Bednář) … S. 1148

Jiří KOTYK
Český fašismus v Pardubicích a na Pardubicku v letech 1926–1939
(Zdeněk Beroun) … S. 1156

Vojtěch KESSLER
Paměť v kameni. Druhý život válečných pomníků
(Ondřej Kolář) … S. 1159

Marie RYANTOVÁ a kol.
Českoslovenští prezidenti
(Jiří Pešek) … S. 1161

ZPRÁVY O LITERATUŘE
S. 1166–1186

Z VĚDECKÉHO ŽIVOTA / CHRONICLE

ŘEZNÍK Miloš
Činnost Česko-německé komise historiků v roce 2016 … S. 1187
(The Activities of the Czech-German Commission of Historians in 2016)

Nekrology

Zdeněk Smetánka (21. října 1931 – 4. dubna 2017) … S. 1192
(Petr Sommer)

Jaromír Homolka (15. května 1926 – 28. května 2017) … S. 1196
(Jiří Kuthan)

Stanisław Bylina (4. dubna 1936 – 4. září 2017) … S. 1200
(Ivan Hlaváček)

Jolanta Dworzaczkowa (28. listopadu 1923 – 13. ledna 2017) … S. 1206
(Kamila Szymanska)

Gottfried Schramm (11. ledna 1929 – 26. října 2017) … S. 1210
(Jaroslav Pánek)

Piotr S. Wandycz (20. září 1923 – 29. července 2017) … S. 1214
(Jindřich Dejmek)

Knihy a časopisy došlé redakci … S. 1219

Výtahy z českých časopisů a sborníků … S. 1219